Daniel Kahneman

The memory-based and the moment-based views draw on different intuitions about what counts as real. There is an obvious sense in which present experience is real and memories are not. But memories have an attribute of permanence which lends them a weightiness that the fleeting present lacks: they endure and populate the mind.
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The experiencing self can easily choose what to do. Sex, skiing, restaurants, concerts, parties – all of these things are about being happy during the event. The remembering self is not so sure. It would rather go to Egypt and see the Pyramids or Interail around Europe just to see what happens.

4 thoughts on “Daniel Kahneman

  1. shinichi Post author

    Experienced Utility and Objective Happiness:

    A Moment-Based Approach

    by Daniel Kahneman

    Choices, Values and Frames

    http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.194.2905&rep=rep1&type=pdf

    The concept of utility has carried two different meanings in its long history. As Bentham (1789) used it, utility refers to the experiences of pleasure and pain, the “sovereign masters” that “point out what we ought to do, as well as determine what we shall do.” In modern decision research, however, the utility of outcomes refers to their weight in decisions: utility is inferred from observed choices and is in turn used to explain choices. To distinguish the two notions I refer to Bentham’s concept as experienced utility and to the modern usage as decision utility.

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  2. shinichi Post author

    Memory Vs. Experience: Happiness is Relative

    by Naina N. Chernoff

    Observer

    Association for Psychological Science

    http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/uncategorized/memory-vs-experience-happiness-is-relative.html

    When we talk about being happy, what do we really mean? We know that happiness comes from a variety of sources, depending upon a person’s point of view. But according to APS Fellow Daniel Kahneman, people don’t know how happy they are because happiness is so relative. Kahneman, a professor of psychology and public affairs at Princeton University, discussed this and related research findings in a lecture entitled “Memory vs. Experience” as part of the Behavioral and Social Sciences Lecture Series at the National Institutes of Health.

    Take, for instance, a study Kahneman conducted in 1998 with his colleague David Schkade, from the University of Texas at Austin. The two researchers asked 2,000 undergraduate students in California and the Midwest to rate their life satisfaction. The result, said Kahneman, was that there was no difference between the students’ ratings in the two regions, even though both groups of students predicted Californians would be happier.

    The students correctly assumed that Californians would be more satisfied with their climate than Midwesterners, said Kahneman, but failed to realize that the weather does not affect people’s overall evaluations of their lives.

    The study, he said, illustrates that people cannot imagine what effect adaptation to their circumstances will have on happiness.

    EXPERIENCED UTILITY

    In addition to his extensive research into happiness, Kahneman is also widely known for his research on human judgment and decision-making. He has received several awards including the APS William James Fellow Award, the Warren Medal of the Society of Experimental Psychologists, the Hilgard Award for Career Contributions to General Psychology, and the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award.

    One of Kahneman’s main areas of interest has been hedonic psychology, defined as the study of pleasure and pain, happiness and misery, both as they are experienced in the present and as they are remembered later. Kahneman has been attempting to revive Jeremy Bentham’s notion of utility, which is that the hedonic experiences of pleasure and pain govern our lives and tell us both what we ought to do and determine what we actually do. The modern view of utility in decision-making research is more singular, focusing on the influence of utility in making choices. Kahneman’s concept – which he calls “experienced utility” – is closer to Bentham’s broader concept combining both decision-making and well-being.

    During the lecture, Kahneman asserted that that his own research indicates that experienced utility could be measured. “The quality of measurement may eventually be good enough to attain measures of well-being and of misery that could serve the needs of policy,” he said.

    For example, the Princeton professor said it would be useful to measure the quality of life in various health states by measuring what it’s actually like to be, for example, visually impaired or to be ill, rather than by having healthy people assign a value to that state, which in fact reflected how afraid they are of having that particular condition. “I’m suggesting that at least in principle there really exists serious problems with QALYs, quality-adjusted life years1,” Kahneman. “We could eventually see a future in which measures of experienced utility would replace this measure.”

    PREDICTIVE UTILITY

    Kahneman’s research also draws on research in “affective forecasting,” a label coined by researcher Daniel Gilbert which refers to how and how well people predict their emotional reactions to future events. Kahneman terms his concept “predictive utility.”

    While serving as a psychology professor at University of California, Berkeley, a few years ago, Kahneman and his collaborator Jackie Snell conducted an experiment in which he paid participants to eat their favorite ice cream flavor while listening to music over the course of 7 days. The participants were asked to predict how they would rate their experience the next day and how they would rate their experience at the end of the experiment.

    The task, Kahneman said, proved to be extremely difficult. Some participants got addicted to the ice cream, while others tired of it, but the individuals showed no ability to predict their own future responses. “People are just not good at guessing how their tastes in particular will change over a period of time,” he explained.

    Kahneman believes that experiments such as this have a crucial implication for medical decision-making. If people cannot predict how their own tastes will change, he said, a serious question arises about the adequacy of informed consent when making medical decisions.

    ADAPTATION

    Another variable people underestimate is adaptation, Kahneman said. In a study conducted by a Princeton undergraduate under Kahneman’s supervision, participants were asked to evaluate the percentage of time paraplegics and lottery winners would be in a good, neutral or bad mood one month and one year after their defining event. Kahneman added a variable omitted by prior researchers on this exact issue, which is whether the participants personally knew any paraplegics or lottery winners.

    “If you know a paraplegic personally, then you know it’s very bad one month after the accident and it’s substantially less bad one year after the accident, so there’s a considerable amount of adaptation,” he said. “But people who don’t know a paraplegic or a lottery winner simply do not discriminate the one month from the one year. They do not predict adaptation.”

    Unless they know an affected individual, Kahneman said, people imagine the transition to the condition or state, not the actual state itself. In essence, there is confusion between being and becoming, which Kahneman said is a general psychological phenomenon.

    MOMENT UTILITY

    Another conclusion Kahneman has drawn from his studies is that the duration of an experience plays essentially no role when evaluating how well it becomes etched in our memories.

    Kahneman believes the most direct way to evaluate experienced utility is to ask people how they feel at a certain moment, a notion he calls “moment utility.” This is the concept, Kahneman said, Bentham really had in mind. But because researchers are more interested in extended outcomes, more often the question they ask is memory-based: “How was it?” Kahneman said this is a different question that reflects the individual’s global evaluation of an entire episode in the past and it may not be a direct assessment of the individual’s real-time state. This “remembered utility,” said Kahneman, is not a very good guide when predicting outcomes. The “total utility” of a state is derived from the moment-based approach of measuring the real time pleasure or pain experienced by the individual.

    The contrast between remembered and total utility brings up the issue of the two different ways to view experiences, the two selves, Kahneman said. The experiencing self does all the living by going through a succession of moments while the remembering self is the one that gets to keep the memories.

    When people make decisions, the remembering self is in control, Kahneman explained. “We make our decisions in terms of our memories and basically, we maximize remembered utility, not the actual total utility,” he said. “The only thing we can learn to maximize through personal experience is remembered utility.”

    TILTING TOWARD WELL-BEING

    These issues all have an effect on a person’s well-being, which most often is measured by satisfaction with life.

    Kahneman said another way of determining well-being is to measure affect, the hedonic quality of experiences, which he said should be measured independently of satisfaction. He put the concept into practice during a recently-completed study conducted on 1000 women in Texas. The participants were asked to characterize moment utility for different points of time during a day. Kahneman and his colleagues hope to generate information about the amount of time spent on each daily activity as well as the factors that characterize each experience.

    While believing people live in the pursuit of satisfaction, Kahneman predicts that they’ll find stronger correlations of happiness with affect than with satisfaction in the study.

    Though he realizes that individuals have little control over their affective dispositions, Kahneman said people do control the variable that can make them happier – allocation of their time.

    “One way to improve life is simply by tilting the balance toward more affectively good activities, such as spending more time with friends or reducing commuting time,” he said.

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  3. shinichi Post author

    Hedonic psychology…is the study of what makes experiences and life pleasant or unpleasant. It is concerned with feelings of pleasure and pain, of interest and boredom, of joy and sorrow, and of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. It is also concerned with the whole range of circumstances, from the biological to the societal, that occasion suffering and enjoyment.

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  4. shinichi Post author

    You Are Not so Smart

    by David McRaney

    THE MISCONCEPTION: You are one person, and your happiness is based on being content with your life.

    THE TRUTH: You are multiple selves, and happiness is based on satisfying all of them.

    Have you ever been so sick you spent a week in bed? What do you remember from that period of time? Mostly nothing, right? All throughout your life great big patches of experience are tossed aside and forgotten. You turn around sometimes and think, “It’s March already!?” or “I’ve been working here for five years!?”

    To understand the difference between experience and memory, you first need to understand a little bit about self. Your sense of self is just that – a sense. The person you imagine yourself to be is a story you tell to yourself and to others differently depending on the situation, and the story changes over time. For now, it is useful to imagine there are two selves active at any given time in your head – the current self and the remembering self.

    The current self is the one experiencing life in real time. It is the person you are in the three or so seconds your sensory memory lasts, and the thirty or so seconds after that in which your short-term memory is juggling all your senses and thoughts. You taste the ice cream and it is good. Then, you remember you tasted the ice cream. Then, in five years, you have no memory of tasting it at all. Sometimes, rarely, something else happens that prompts you to move the memory into long-term storage. Think back now to all the times you have tasted ice cream. How many true memories do you have that aren’t just dreamlike wisps? How many stories can you tell about tasting ice cream? The remembering self is made up of all those memories that have passed into long-term storage.

    When you replay your life in your mind, you can’t go back to all the things you have ever experienced. Only the things that went from experience to short-term memory to long-term memory are available to fully remember. Going to get ice cream is not about building awesome memories. It’s about being happy for a few minutes. It’s about gratification. The happiness derived from such an experience is fleeting.

    The psychologist Daniel Kahneman has much to say on this topic. He says the self that makes decisions in your life is usually the remembering one. It drags your current self around in pursuit of new memories, anticipating them based on old memories. The current self has little control over your future. It can control only a few actions, like moving your hand away from a hot stove or putting one foot in front of the other. Occasionally, it prompts you to eat a cheeseburger, or watch a horror movie, or play a video game. The current self is happy when experiencing things. It likes to be in the flow.

    It is the remembering self that has made all the big decisions. It is happy when you can sit back and reflect on your life up to this point and feel content. It is happy when you tell people stories about the things you have seen and done. Kahneman proposes this thought experiment: Imagine you are preparing to go on a two-week holiday. At the end of this holiday, you will drink a potion that will erase all the memories from those two weeks.

    How will this affect your decisions? Knowing you won’t remember any of it, what will you spend your time doing during those two weeks? That weird feeling you are having thinking about this is the conflict between your experiencing self and your remembering self. The experiencing self can easily choose what to do. Sex, skiing, restaurants, concerts, parties – all of these things are about being happy during the event. The remembering self is not so sure. It would rather go to Egypt and see the Pyramids or Interail around Europe just to see what happens.

    Kahneman’s research suggests there are two channels through which you decide whether or not you are happy. The current self is happy when experiencing nice things. The remembering self is happy when you look back on your life and pull up plenty of positive memories. As Kahneman points out, a two-week holiday may yield only a handful of lifelong memories. You will pull those memories out every once and a while and use them to be happy. There is a serious imbalance between the time you spend creating these memories and the time you spend enjoying them later.

    The current self doesn’t like sitting in a cubicle. It feels caged. It could be doing something fun. The remembering self doesn’t like not having the opportunity to build new memories, so it is willing to grind away to earn money for food and shelter and delay gratification.

    Life for you and many others is full of conflict between these two selves over how best to be happy. Kahneman’s research shows that happiness can’t be all one or all the other. You have to be happy in the flow of time while simultaneously creating memories you can look back on later.

    To be happy now and content later, you can’t be focused only on reaching goals, because once you reach them, the experience ends. To truly be happy, you must satisfy both of your selves. Go get the ice cream, but do so in a meaningful way that creates a long-term memory. Grind away to have money for later, but do so in a way that generates happiness as you work.”

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